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Developmental state, or hard state, is a term used by international political economy scholars to refer to the phenomenon of state-led macroeconomic planning in East Asia in the late twentieth century. In this model of capitalism (sometimes referred to as ''state development capitalism''), the state has more independent, or autonomous, political power, as well as more control over the economy. A developmental state is characterized by having strong state intervention, as well as extensive regulation and planning. The term has subsequently been used to describe countries outside East Asia which satisfy the criteria of a developmental state. Botswana, for example, has warranted the label since the early 1970s.〔Leftwich, Adrian, "The Developmental State", Working Paper No. 6, University of York,1994〕 The developmental state is sometimes contrasted with a predatory state or weak state.〔Evans, Peter. 1995. Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.〕 The first person to seriously conceptualize the developmental state was Chalmers Johnson.〔Leftwitch, Adrian, "Bringing politics back in: Towards a model of the developmental state", ''Journal of Development Studies'', Volume 31, Issue 3 February 1995, pages 400-427〕 Johnson defined the developmental state as a state that is focused on economic development and takes necessary policy measures to accomplish that objective. He argued that Japan's economic development had much to do with far-sighted intervention by bureaucrats, particularly those in the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). He wrote in his book ''MITI and the Japanese Miracle'':
A regulatory state governs the economy mainly through regulatory agencies that are empowered to enforce a variety of standards of behavior to protect the public against market failures of various sorts, including monopolistic pricing, predation, and other abuses of market power, and by providing collective goods (such as national defense or public education) that otherwise would be undersupplied by the market. In contrast, a developmental state intervenes more directly in the economy through a variety of means to promote the growth of new industries and to reduce the dislocations caused by shifts in investment and profits from old to new industries. In other words, developmental states can pursue industrial policies, while regulatory states generally can not. Governments in developmental states invest mobilize majority of capital into the most promising industrial sector that will have maximum spillover effect for the society. Cooperation between state and major industries is crucial for maintaining stable macroeconomy. According to Alice Amsden's Getting the price wrong, the intervention of state in the market system such as grant of subsidy to improve competitiveness of firm, control of exchange rate, wage level and manupulation of inflation to loward production cost for industries caused economic growth, that is mostly found in late industrializers countries but foreign to early developed countries.〔Amsden, Alice H. "Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization", Oxford University Press, June 1992, Chapter 6〕 As in the case of Japan, there is little government ownership of industry, but the private sector is rigidly guided and restricted by bureaucratic government elites. These bureaucratic government elites are not elected officials and are thus less subject to influence by either the corporate-class or working-class through the political process. The argument from this perspective is that a government ministry can have the freedom to plan the economy and look to long-term national interests without having their economic policies disrupted by either corporate-class or working-class short-term or narrow interests. Developing countries in general often were ruled in so called developmental states by colonial countries - and later by authoritarian regimes after the independence. That they needed good governance more than those structures is pointed out by Henning Melber, executive director of the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation in Sweden, in the magazine (D+C Development and Cooperation ). what are the positive effects of neoliberalism on developmental state of east asia?] *Economic nationalism *Protection of fledging domestic industries *Focus on foreign technology transfer *Large government bureaucracy *Rationality, meritocracy, and professionality bureaucracy (Weberian) *Improved infrastructure for business by state *Institutional encouragement for saving and strategic credit *Export oriented policy *Alliance between the state, labour and industry called corporatism *Skepticism of neoliberalism and the Washington Consensus *Prioritization of economic growth over political reform *Legitimacy and Performance *Emphasis on technical education〔Marwala, Tshilidzi. 2009. Foundations for a Developmental State: A case for technical education'' 〕 *Protection of Investment *Macroeconomic Environment *Efficient allocation of resources *Government intervention ==Examples in East and Southeast Asia== Some of the best prospects for economic growth in the last few decades have been found in East and Southeast Asia.〔 Japan, South Korea, China, Singapore, India, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia are developing at high to moderate levels. Thailand, for example, has grown at double-digit rates most years since the early 1980s. China has been the world leader in economic growth since 2001. It is estimated that it took England around 60 years to double its economy when the Industrial Revolution began. It took the United States around 50 years to double its economy during the American economic take-off in the late nineteenth century. Several East and Southeast Asian countries today have been doubling their economies every 10 years.〔Kristof, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. 2000. ''Thunder From the East: Portrait of a Rising Asia.'' New York: Knopf.〕 It is important to note that in most of these Asian countries, it is not just that the rich are getting richer, but the poor are becoming less poor. For example, poverty has dropped dramatically in Thailand. Research in the 1960s showed that 60 percent of the people in Thailand lived below a poverty level estimated with cost of basic necessities. By 2004, however, similar estimates showed that poverty there was around 13 to 15 percent. Thailand has been shown by some World Bank figures to have had the best record for reducing poverty per increase in GNP of any nation in the world.〔Nabi, Ijaz, and Jayasankur Shivakumer. 2001. ''Back from the Brink: Thailand's Response to the 1997 Economic Crisis.'' Washington, DC: World Bank.〕〔United Nations Development Report. 1999. Human Development Report of Thailand 1999. Bangkok: Author.〕〔World Bank. 2000. ''World Development Report 2000/2001.'' New York: Oxford University Press.〕 When viewed through the lens of dependency theory, developmentalism is about countries such as Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, and increasingly Vietnam, where the governments are able and willing to protect their people from the negative consequences of foreign corporate exploitation. They tend to have a strong government, also called a "developmental state" or "hard state" and have leaders who can confront multinationals and demand that they operate to protect their people's interests. These "development states" have the will and authority to create and maintain policies that lead to long-term development that helps all their citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they may follow domestically mandated standards for pay and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes, and by extension leave some profits within the country. Specifically, what is meant by a developmental state, is a government with sufficient organization and power to achieve its development goals.〔Chang, Ha-Joon. 1999. "The Economic Theory of the Developmental State." Pp. 182-199 in Meredith Woo-Cumings (ed.), ''The Developmental State.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornall University Press.〕〔Cumings, Bruce. 1999. "Webs with No Spiders, Spiders with No Webs: The Genealogy of the Developmental State." Pp. 61-92 in Meredith Woo-Cummings (ed.), ''The Developmental State.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornall University Press.〕〔Johnson, Chalmers. 1982. ''MITI and the Japanese Miracle.'' Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.〕〔Pempel, T.J. 1999. "The Developmental Regime in a Changing World Economy." Pp. 137-181 in Meredith Woo-Cummings (ed.), ''The Developmental State.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornall University Press.〕 There must be a state with the ability to prove consistent economic guidance and rational and efficient organization, and the power to back up its long-range economic policies. All of this is important because the state must be able to resist external demands from outside multinational corporations to do things for their short-term gain, overcome internal resistance from strong groups trying to protect short-term narrow interests, and control infighting within the nation pertaining to who will most benefit from development projects. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Developmental state」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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